The book of Joshua is named after the primary character and likely author, Hoshea, son of Nun to whom Moses gave the name Joshua (Numbers 13:16). The title is the same in Hebrew and the Septuagint text, though the Septuagint uses the Greek equivalent to the name Joshua, which is Iesous, or Jesus.
Author
The Babylonian Talmud (Baba Bathra 15) calls Joshua the author of the book that bears his name, although Joshua does die in chapter 24, leaving someone else to finish the book. John Calvin thought that Eleazar the priest was likely the compiler of the book, though the Masoretic Text does mention Eleazar’s death in the book, as well as Joshua’s.
Historical-critical scholars, following Albrecht Alt and Martin Noth, suggested a Deuteronomistic historian, sometime in the late seventh to sixth century B.C., as a possibility. The “Deuteronomistic History” is a theory that suggests that the historical books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings were all based on Deuteronomy, which according to the Documentary Hypothesis (i.e., JEDP theory or the Graf-Wellhausen theory) was composed in 621 B.C.—and therefore these historical books must have been composed after Deuteronomy. Most evangelical scholarship has rejected the Deuteronomistic History theory based on its faulty presuppositions concerning the book of Deuteronomy.
Date
The date of the events in Joshua is a complicated issue. Most scholars believe that the latest possible date for the events of the book (not its composition, which is often claimed to be later) is 1207 B.C. This is due to the reference in the Merneptah Stele (a stone monument by the nineteenth dynasty Pharaoh Merneptah) about Israel being one of the peoples in the land of Canaan, which would presuppose a Conquest before that date.
The Conquest is tied to the timing of the Exodus (please see the Exodus summary for more details), and there are two primary views of when that was. Some suggest that the Bible advocates a conquest of Canaan about 1406 B.C. (my preferred view), while others suggest a later Exodus and therefore Conquest in the 1230s B.C. The Conquest period itself only lasted about seven years, most likely from 1406-1399, with Joshua dying about a decade after the major military campaigns were finished.
When it comes to the date of writing, those who assume that Joshua wrote most of the book would come with a date near 1390 B.C. with some of the last chapter coming soon afterwards. It has already been mentioned that those who take this to be the work of a Deuteronomistic historian would place the writing to the seventh/sixth century B.C. However, notable theologian B. S. Childs argued based on the etiologies (the explanation of the origin of something) within the book that it should be dated at least before 1000 B.C.
“The Conquest is tied to the timing of the Exodus, and there are two primary views of when that was.”
Theories of the Conquest
The complex and disputed nature of the archaeological remains of Canaan from 1400 to 1200 B.C., combined with the debate over Israel’s existence in Egypt before the Exodus, has led commentators to a variety of different models for the Israelites coming into Canaan. A straightforward reading of Joshua would lead the reader to expect that it depicts a military campaign to subjugate Canaan. Many, including the famed archaeologist W. F. Albright, so argued, with this opinion basically holding dominance until the twentieth century.
Yet, once the text began to be doubted as being historically accurate, other viewpoints arose. Albrecht Alt, Martin Noth, and Finkelstein (though with some variation from previous scholars) argued that Israel peacefully infiltrated the land and eventually grew to be the dominant political force in Canaan. William Dever advocated an evolutionary model in which a “proto-Israel” always existed within the land and evolved into what would become the people/nation of Israel. Gottwald and Mendenhall argued for a revolt (a peasant’s revolt or a Yahwistic-focused one) from within Canaan that led to the formation of Israel.
While some of these other models might contain some helpful observations within them, the biblical account seems to prioritize a conquest narrative.
“Once the text began to be doubted as being historically accurate, other viewpoints arose.”
Archaeology of the Conquest
Most scholarly issues with the book of Joshua focus on the archaeological record. Archaeology is by its very nature a science in which conclusions are drawn even when you may be missing a great deal of evidence. This lack of evidence might show fault in a historical record, or it also could show that we are either digging in the wrong place or that we have misinterpreted the data.
One issue that has commonly come up is about the lack of evidence for the destruction of some Canaanite sites during the time of the Conquest (such issues are found both with a fifteenth-century conquest and a thirteenth-century one). However, a careful reading of the text notes that only three sites—Jericho, Ai, and Hazor were specifically burned—which is the easiest evidence to identify when it comes to whether a site was conquered.
The site of Jericho has been excavated since the nineteenth century, but its most famous early excavator was John Garstang in the 1930s. Garstang found evidence of a collapsed wall which he identified as the fallen wall of Jericho during Joshua’s campaign. However, when the site was excavated by Dame Kathleen Kenyon in the 1950s, she dated this destruction of Jericho to the mid-sixteenth century and claimed that no city existed in 1400 B.C. (or 1230 B.C.) when Joshua would have been coming into Canaan. This led to many scholars as a rule doubting not only Joshua’s account but also much of biblical history. This sentiment of suspicion toward the biblical record continues with many archaeologists today.
“The site of Jericho has been excavated since the nineteenth century.”
However, Dr. Bryant Wood reexamined Jericho and believed that Kenyon had missed some finds and misdated other finds. Of particular note were the discovery of several Egyptian-style scarab seals at the site that dated from the eighteenth dynasty until about 1400 B.C. and then ceased. This led Wood to argue that the city was still there during Joshua’s day, and then it ceased to be a permanently occupied site (until the ninth century B.C.) as the biblical text would indicate.
Ai is a difficult case, as the site has not been conclusively identified. The traditional site of Et-Tell was definitely uninhabited, as fits with the biblical record, whether one takes an early Conquest or a late one. Yet this identification depends greatly on the identification of Bethel being at the West Bank village of Beitan, though some have called this into question. Another possibility is that of Khirbet Nisyra which had been inhabited during the time when Joshua would have been around. Another possibility is that of Khirbet El-Maqatir which was a small fortress of only about 4-5 acres. If Bethel is identified with a site called El-birah, then this site of Khirbet El-Maqatir holds great promise of being Ai.
Hazor’s site is well known. It is the largest ruin in Israel. The difficulty with Hazor is that it was burned several times. There seems to be evidence of both a burning in the early fourteenth century B.C. and one in the twelfth century B.C. It may be that we have evidence of both Joshua’s conquest and that of Deborah and Barak a few centuries later.
“Hazor’s site is well known. It is the largest ruin in Israel.”
Summary of Joshua
The Conquest of Jericho
Joshua begins with the notice that Moses was dead. Joshua is told to be strong and courageous by God and others in the task of conquering the Promised Land. If Joshua is obedient, God promises that every place his foot treads will be given to them.
In chapter 2, Joshua sends two spies into Jericho. With the help of Rahab, who makes a covenant with them to let her and her family live, the spies escape to tell Joshua that the Canaanites are afraid and ripe for conquest. Chapters 3 and 4 cover the crossing of the Jordan and the setting up of a memorial. Chapter 5 focuses on Joshua’s interaction with the Commander of the Lord’s Host who will give some unusual battle plans for the taking of Jericho.
The conquest of Jericho is straightforward, with Israel obeying the angel’s orders. After marching around the city a total of thirteen times (one time each for six days and seven times on the seventh day), they blow trumpets and give a great shout, and the walls of Jericho fall flat. Rahab’s family is saved, but the rest of the people are cherem, a word that means “devoted to the LORD for destruction.”
“If Joshua is obedient, God promises that every place his foot treads will be given to them.”
Conquest of Ai
While this seems to be a good beginning, there is a failure here at Jericho. All the precious items were to be devoted to the Lord, with nothing kept by the Israelites from this battle. However, one man, Achan, takes some precious items and hides them within his tent. This theft places Israel under a curse.
The next town to conquer, Ai, is small so only 3,000 Israelites go into battle, but they are defeated before Ai and lose 36 men. Joshua is distraught, but God reveals to him that he was not with them because someone had taken something from under the ban. Through drawing lots, it is discovered that Achan is the guilty party. He confesses his crime, he and his family are stoned and then burned, and then Israel is no longer cursed.
Ai will be taken in the second battle. This time, Joshua has an ambush lay in wait while the main body of Israel draws out the men of Ai. Joshua retreats from the men of Ai while the ambush springs up and burns the city of Ai. When the men of Ai see their city on fire and that they are caught between two opposing forces, they panic and are slaughtered. The rest of chapter 8 records the covenant renewal ceremony on Mt. Ebal and Mt. Gerizim.
“While this seems to be a good beginning, there is a failure here at Jericho.”
The Gibeonites
Chapter 9 records the account of the Hivites of Gibeon, who instead of fighting Israel decide to deceive Israel into making peace with them. According to the Law in Deuteronomy 20, nations far from Israel could surrender and become forced labor. These Gibeonites approach Israel and ask for a treaty.
Though the Israelites are suspicious, they forget to inquire of God. They examine the worn-out sandals and taste the dried-out bread and drink from the worn-out wineskins that the Gibeonites have brought in their deception. The Israelite leadership makes a covenant with them to let them live, only to find out later that the city of Gibeon was five miles down the road.
The congregation of Israel grumbles against the leaders, but since they swore an oath to the Lord, they let the Gibeonites live, though they must become water-carriers and wood-hewers for the Tabernacle.
Alliance Against Israel
At this point, the Canaanites begin to band together in confederations to oppose Israel. When the king of Jerusalem hears of Gibeon’s surrender, he is concerned, as Gibeon was a significant city and only eight miles from Jerusalem. So, the king of Jerusalem makes an alliance with several other cities and proposes to attack Gibeon. When the Gibeonites hear of this, they are alarmed and send word to Joshua at Gilgal for help twenty miles away.
By a forced night march, the Israelites surprise this southern confederacy of kings and defeats them, but the defeat is not total due to the lack of time. In one of the most unusual miracles in Scripture, Joshua asks the Lord to have the sun stand still over Gibeon and the moon over the valley of Aijalon. Thus, the Lord produces a miraculously “long day” for the Israelites to finish the battle. The five kings of the southern confederation are found in a cave at Makkedah and later hanged. After the battle, Israel will attack a few of these cities (not Jerusalem though) and break the power of the Canaanites in the south.
The Canaanites in the north now become alarmed, and the largest city in Canaan, Hazor, leads a mighty coalition, with the army described as being like the sand of the sea. By another surprise march, Joshua defeats this northern coalition at the waters of Merom and burns Hazor to the ground. At this, the organized Canaanite resistance to Israel collapses, leaving only pockets of Canaanites remaining. Chapter 12 of Joshua gives a summary of the conquest. It lists 31 kings that Israel had conquered in the Promised Land.
“At this point, the Canaanites begin to band together in confederations to oppose Israel.”
Division of the Land
The book shifts at this point, to the dividing up of the Promised Land amongst the Israelites. It begins with Caleb who asks for the right to Kiriath-Arba (Hebron). Caleb and Joshua were the only adult men who had survived the forty years in the wilderness. This was because they testified what was right when they spied out the land (see Numbers 13-14). While Kiriath-Arba is full of giants, Caleb at the young age of 85 drives them out anyway and then proceeds to attack and take Debir.
The tribes begin to receive their inheritance in chapter 15, with Judah being first and then Ephraim and Manasseh. A snag hits as Joshua’s own tribe, Ephraim, complains that their land is too forested and the remaining Canaanites are too strong. Joshua tells them to clear the forest and drive out the Canaanites. There were still seven tribes that hadn’t received their inheritance yet, so Joshua has three men from each of the remaining tribes survey the remaining land. After this happens, the remaining tribes starting with Benjamin receive their inheritance.
Chapters 20 and 21 record the setting up of the six cities of refuge for the manslayer. Then 48 cities are given to the Levites who are scattered throughout Israel.
“The book shifts at this point, to the dividing up of the Promised Land amongst the Israelites.”
Chapter 22 records how the three Trans-Jordan tribes (Reubenites, Gadites, half-tribe of Manasseh) build their own altar near the Jordan on the western side. This nearly causes a civil war as there was supposed to be only one official altar to the Lord: the altar of burnt offering in the Tabernacle. But before going to war against the Trans-Jordan tribes, a delegation led by Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron, go to the Trans-Jordan tribes to ascertain what was going on with this altar. The Trans-Jordan tribes claim that the altar is not for sacrifice, but as a memorial so that the tribes west of the Jordan won’t forget that the Trans-Jordan tribes also are Israelites. This pleases everyone and war is averted.
Joshua’s Farewell Address
The final section of the book (chapters 23-24) is Joshua’s farewell address. Joshua will review Israel’s history up to this point and remind Israel how God has blessed Israel. Joshua then gives them the famous choice. Either choose the gods of your fathers who lived beyond the Euphrates River or the gods of the land in which you are now living. “But as for me and my household,” says Joshua, “we will serve the LORD.” Israel resolves to serve the Lord, even though Joshua knows they will fail in it. Joshua dies. Joseph’s bones, brought up from Egypt with Moses, are buried in the land of his birth.
For Further Reading
Other than to tackle historical questions, Joshua is not a book that many prospective commentators jump to write. Unfortunately, there are not many conservative evangelical commentaries on the book. The commentaries by Daniel Hawk and the Joshua commentary in the New American Commentary series by David Howard are some of the more conservative commentaries. While his is a bit more on the historical-critical side of things, David Firth’s commentary on Joshua is good read, for he focuses on the text rather than source critical or form critical issues.
