Let’s start our summary of Exodus with a look at the title of the book. The Hebrew title for the book of Exodus is Shemoth (“names”), coming from the very first line of the book which says, “These are the names. . .”. The title of the book in the Septuagint (the ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament) is where the English term “exodus” comes from, being a combination of the preposition “out of” and the word “way” in Greek. The title thus seems to focus on one of the most significant events in the book, the coming out of Egypt after hundreds of years of captivity.
Author of Exodus
The book itself seems to claim that Moses was the author of significant sections of the book (see Exodus 17:14, 34:5, 27-29). The tradition of Mosaic authorship is also found in the New Testament (see Mark 7:10; Luke 24:44), Josephus, and the Babylonian Talmud (Babra Bathra 15b).
Most critical scholars will still subscribe to some form of source criticism with Exodus as they do with the rest of the Pentateuch (see the summary of Genesis for more details). According to this way of viewing the Pentateuch, most of Exodus is J document and P with some E mixed in. It is worth noting, though, that no pre-Pentateuch document has ever been discovered that would correspond to the scholarly constructions of J, E, or P.
Date of Exodus
The date of writing of course depends on authorship, and if Moses, who was an eyewitness of the events, is the author, then the date of writing and the date of the events should be relatively close.
However, one of the biggest controversies regarding the book comes from the event after which the book was named, the exodus from Egypt. Dates stretching from 1650 down to 1150 B.C. have been suggested, as well as the idea that there was no exodus from Egypt at all, and that the Israelites had always been in the land of Canaan.
1446 B.C.
Two primary dates have been suggested for the exodus. The first is 1446 B.C. The evidence for this date for the exodus comes from both biblical and archaeological sources. The primary piece of evidence for this date comes from 1 Kings 6:1 which informs us that 480 years after Moses and Israel left Egypt, Solomon began to build the temple. Solomon’s fourth year in which he began to build can be dated to about 966 B.C. We know that in 763 B.C. an eclipse occurred in Assyria, and using Assyrian limmu lists (a record of each year) we are able to come up with some relatively fixed dates for events, including dates regarding Solomon’s reign. So, 966 + 480 is 1446 B.C.
Another biblical passage used to support the 1446 B.C. date is Judges 11:26, in which the judge Jephthah (a later judge about 1100 B.C.) tells the Ammonite king that Israel had been in the Transjordan region 300 years. When we add up the dates, 1100 + 300 + 40 years of wandering is 1440 B.C.
In addition to evidence from the biblical text itself, there are archaeological artifacts that support the 1446 B.C. date. Some supporters of the 1446 date for the Exodus find support for this view from the famous Amarna tablets. These tablets were written by Canaanite city-state kings to the Egyptian Pharaohs of the 18th dynasty Amenhotep III (1400-1353 B.C.) or the later Akhenaten (1300s B.C.). These tablets report plundering by some nation-less individuals called “Hapiru” upon the land of Canaan. These Hapiru have been identified by some as “Hebrews,” though to be fair, the term is used of any stateless individual (which was true of, but not limited to, the Israelites under Joshua).
“Two primary dates have been suggested for the exodus.”
Another famous archaeological artifact that has bearing on this is the Merneptah Stele. This monument by the 19th dynasty Pharaoh commemorates a campaign by Merneptah (son of Ramses II) into the land of Canaan. He recounts various people groups he conquered and claims, hyperbolically, “Israel, his seed is not.” This definitively places Israel as an established people group in the land of Canaan by 1210 B.C.
While definitely controversial, the archaeological remains of Jericho and Hazor have been argued by some to have an occupation break around 1400 B.C., which is about the time Joshua and the Israelites would have conquered the area. Add 40 years for a wilderness wandering and you would get an exodus from Egypt about 1440 B.C. However, the remains of both Jericho and Hazor have been variously dated, with some arguing that there was no inhabited city of Jericho in 1400 B.C. and that the destruction at Hazor should be dated to another century.
1270 B.C.
The other common date for the Exodus is approximately 1270 B.C. during the reign of Ramses II of the 19th dynasty of Egypt. The primary reason for this date is the construction of storage cities by the Israelites known as Pithom and Ramses, with the assumption that the city of Ramses would be named after the pharaoh. Moreover, since Ramses I only reigned 4 years, the assumption is that this must be named after Ramses II.
As for 1 Kings 6:1 (which places Solomon’s temple construction 480 years after the exodus), those who advocate for the 1270 B.C. date take the 480 years mentioned there not as a literal number but a symbolic one, being 12×40 (where 40 is an approximation for a generation). However, they take a generation as literally being closer to 25 years, and this would result in a date of 1266 B.C.
Another element used in support of the 1270 B.C. date for the exodus is some destruction layers in the land of Canaan that would date around 1230 B.C. (when, according to this date, Joshua would have been in Canaan) and would constitute evidence of the Israelite conquest. While the dating is exceptionally close, the Merneptah Stele which dates to 1210 B.C. (barely more than ten years after the conquest period according to this dating) has also been suggested as evidence for this date for the Exodus. While some biblical scholars prefer this date (and it has become the preferred date for Hollywood films about the exodus), it seems to me that the stronger case can be made for the earlier date. However, it should be noted that there is some question about our understanding about Egyptian chronology, and if Egyptian chronology too needs revised, then other possibilities for a date exist.
“It seems to me that the stronger case can be made for the earlier date.”
It is true that there are skeptics and biblical minimalists that do not believe in an actual exodus. Let me briefly comment on the argument that there is no definitive evidence for Israel’s sojourn in Egypt and subsequent journey through the wilderness. We should note that this argument is based on “archaeological silence.” Not having definitive archaeological evidence for the exodus and wilderness wanderings might be due to several reasons. First, nomadic people groups don’t usually leave a lot of remains. Second, it has by now been some 3,500 years since the exodus, and any remains might have been lost. Third, many of the spots we read about in Israel’s wilderness wandering period are uncertain, including where they would have crossed the Red Sea and which mountain is Mt. Sinai. It could be simply that archaeologists who deny any evidence for the exodus are looking in the wrong place.
Outline of Exodus
While not outlined quite as easily as Genesis, Exodus is typically divided into three major sections. First is the calling out from Egypt, the exodus itself, which lasts from chapters 1-19. Second, Israel becomes covenanted with the LORD at Mount Sinai which is the focus of chapters 20-24. Third is the construction of the Tabernacle, which is the primary focus of chapters 25-40 with a brief interlude concerning the golden calf and the fallout concerning it in chapters 32-34. While there have been other and more complex outlines to the book, this seems to work and is relatively easy to use.
Place/Purpose of Exodus in the Canon
Exodus is the second book of what is known as the “Torah” (Hebrew for law or instruction), otherwise known as the “Pentateuch” (Greek for “five scrolls”). As with the rest of the Law books, Exodus has always been considered canon.
Its primary purpose is related to the promise that God made to Abram, about making a nation from his descendants (see Genesis 12, 15). In Genesis, God had selected a family and brought them down to Egypt for safety and to grow them into a nation. Exodus tells of the emancipation of that nation from slavery in Egypt and the nation of Israel’s entering into covenant with the LORD. The great covenantal formula “They shall be my people and I will be their God” (see Exodus 6:7) sums up well this aspect of the book of Exodus. It explains how this band of slaves became God’s chosen nation on earth. Nations need laws both to govern everyday life and to help them follow after the LORD, and Exodus also provides material for both of those aspects.
Overview of Exodus
Exodus begins with a brief listing of Jacob’s family that went into Egypt during Joseph’s day and how they quickly multiplied into a great people. However, a new pharaoh arose who did not remember what Joseph had done for Egypt. He saw this foreign element in his land and fearing that they would join Egypt’s enemies, enslaved them. However, the Israelites continued to multiply, and after trying a few methods, Pharaoh ordered all male Israelite children to be thrown into the Nile after birth.
Moses’ Early Life
Moses was born at this period, and his parents, Amram and Jochebed, hid him for three months (as Hebrews 11:23 says, they saw that he was “beautiful). However, after three months, Jochebed could no longer conceal him and placed him in an “ark” made out of a basket covered in pitch. She placed the basket in the Nile near where Pharaoh’s daughter bathed. She had Miriam, Moses’ older sister, watch the basket. Sure enough, Pharaoh’s daughter found the basket, took pity on the child, and claimed him as her own. At Miriam’s suggestion, Moses’ birth mom was employed as Moses’ wet nurse until the time that he would be raised in Pharaoh’s court. The first forty years of Moses’ life were spent in Egypt.
However, Moses grew up and chose to identify with Israel rather than with Egypt. One day while he was visiting his brethren, he saw an Egyptian beating a Hebrew and he killed the Egyptian, burying him in the sand. The next day, Moses saw two Hebrews fighting and tried to make peace when one of them questioned whether or not Moses would kill him, too. At this, Moses knew his deed had been discovered and he fled Egypt. In the land of Midian, he rescued the seven daughters of Jethro, married his eldest daughter Zipporah, and lived in obscurity in the land of Midian for the second forty years of his life.
“Moses grew up and chose to identify with Israel rather than with Egypt.”
The Plagues
Yet, one day, Moses wandered near the mountain of God, known as Horeb or, most often, Sinai. He observed a bush that burned but wasn’t consumed. When he came close, God spoke to him. God told Moses His name, something close to “Yahweh,” and sent him to go and deliver Israel from Egypt. Moses was very reluctant, but after being given some miraculous abilities and the help of Aaron, Moses’ brother as spokesperson, Moses agreed to go.
Moses went to Pharaoh and asked originally that the Israelites only be allowed to go and celebrate a festival to the LORD (total emancipation wasn’t asked for until the final plague). Pharaoh, not recognizing the LORD and thinking that this was only a ploy to get out of working, intensified the Israelite labor (which consisted mostly of making bricks) by forcing the Israelites to gather their own straw to make bricks. The Israelites were unable to maintain their brick quotas, and several of them are beaten. Israel blamed Moses and Moses blamed God who then told Moses that now He would do wonders in Egypt, and Pharaoh would surely let Israel go. Then began a series of plagues, growing in intensity and likely targeting different deities of the Egyptian pantheon. Every so often, Pharaoh would beg for relief, make promises, even confess himself as a sinner, but would consistently harden his heart (or have it hardened by God, both do occur) and not let Israel go.
Leaving Egypt
The last plague, the death of the firstborn of Egypt, is tied to the feast of Passover. Passover became part of every first month of the Hebrew calendar. Each family was to sacrifice a lamb and roast it and eat it with unleavened bread and bitter herbs with sandals on their feet and their staff in their hand as if in a hurry. The blood of the lamb would be placed on the doorposts of the house so that the destroyer would pass by that house, but every house that did not have blood on its doorposts had a dead person in it by morning. With the death of the firstborn, Pharaoh allowed Israel to go free.
Moses led the Israelites into the Wilderness and camped them by the Red Sea. As it turns out, the LORD wasn’t quite finished with Pharaoh. Pharaoh changed his mind about losing his labor force and sent his army to bring Israel back into captivity. God interposed a pillar of fire and cloud between Pharaoh’s army and Israel, and then with Moses leading the way, God divided the Red Sea for Israel to cross on dry ground. When Pharaoh’s army tried to cross, God released the Red Sea and the Egyptian army was no more.
“When Pharaoh’s army tried to cross, God released the Red Sea and the Egyptian army was no more.”
Early Troubles Following God
Only a few days later, troubles from within Israel begin. Having left in a hurry, the Israelites quickly ran out of water and food and began complaining. This would be a sign for troubles to come (see the book of Numbers). In addition, they would be attacked by Amalekites, though ultimately Israel would prevail. It was becoming clear that Israel’s path to nationhood was not going to be without challenges.
At last, they came to Sinai where God had them consecrate themselves for His appearance. His appearance in fire was so intimidating to Israel that they asked Moses to be the go-between for them. Israel entered into covenant with God, and Moses left to go up Sinai for forty days to receive the tablets of the covenant (the 10 commandments).
Sadly, Israel’s faithfulness was short-lived as they began to worry about Moses being gone and pressured Aaron into making a golden calf as their god. While Aaron might have thought this could be construed as a way of worshiping the LORD, it turned into a pagan party. Moses came down from the mountain, saw what was happening, and in anger smashed the tablets of the Ten Commandments. (He would have to go and spend another forty days making another set.) He destroyed the idol, made the Israelites drink the ashes of it, and slaughtered those directly involved with the worship. This was after he had convinced God not to wipe out all of Israel. Since Israel was disobedient, God had a special tent of meeting (not to be confused with the tabernacle) set up outside of camp for Moses to meet with him. For if God was in the midst of the camp and Israel sinned, Israel would likely not survive the encounter with God.
“Israel’s faithfulness was short-lived.”
Tabernacle and Priesthood
Most of the rest of Exodus has to deal with the setting up of the tabernacle structure and the priesthood. Detailed, but not complete, instructions are given for the priestly garments, the construction of the tabernacle itself, and the construction of the tabernacle furniture. While some consider this material less interesting, it was highly significant to the Israelites, as this was the acceptable way worship could be done until the advent of Christ.
Key Passages in Exodus
Among the most significant passages in Exodus, at least for Christians, are those which connect to Christ in the New Testament (see below). Yet there are also a couple key verses in Exodus that call for a bit of explanation. These verses are Exodus 3:14 and what relationship it has with Exodus 6:2.
Exodus 3:14 is God’s revelation to Moses of the divine name, “I AM.” The divine name “Yahweh” is most commonly thought to be a derivative of the Hebrew verb “to be” which in the first person would be “I AM,” but in the 3rd person imperfect would be “Yahweh.” Exodus 3:14 has significance in several places in the New Testament, but a couple of places deserve mention. In John 8:58, Jesus applies the words “I AM” in reference to Himself, applying to the divine name to His own person. The Jewish leaders who heard it picked up stones to stone Him for blasphemy, for He was equating Himself with God. A similar idea might be present in Mark 14:26 when the religious leaders ask if Jesus is the Christ, and He replies “I AM.” The leaders tear their robes at what they believe is blasphemy.
When it comes to critical scholarship, Exodus 6:2 is an important verse to interpret. Exodus 6:2 claims that the patriarchs did not know God by the term “Yahweh.” This has led some critical scholars to claim that the religion and the God that Moses is advocating (or whom the author of the 8/7th century whom JEDP scholars believe wrote this is advocating) is different from that of the God of the patriarchs. However, the term “Yahweh” is found in the mouth of Abram in Genesis 15:7. And so while the terms El Shaddai or El Eloah might have been more common expressions of God in the mouths of the patriarchs, according to Genesis 15:7, they did know Yahweh.
“Exodus 3:14 is God’s revelation to Moses of the divine name, ‘I AM.'”
So, what are we to make of Exodus 6:2? It may be that the type of covenantal relationship, typified by the term Yahweh, was not made with the patriarchs but with Israel as a nation. For the first time, God was entering into covenant with a nation in a special way not known to the patriarchs. That seems to be the best explanation of Exodus 6:2 in light of Genesis 15:7.
Perhaps most significant of all for the Christian are the key events and themes in Exodus which are referenced in the New Testament, as being a picture of Christ and his new covenant. Many events of Exodus are used typologically by the New Testament. For example, the crossing of the Red Sea is pictured as a form of baptism (1 Corinthians 10:5). Another good example is the Passover lamb which is the type, with Christ being the antitype (1 Corinthians 5:7). The rock from which water comes out is also identified with Christ (1 Corinthians 10:4). Multiple comparisons between Moses and Christ as well as between Aaron (the high priest) and Christ are made with some regularity in the New Testament.
Archaeological Insights Related to Exodus
The archaeological data of this early period is limited. But one archaeological question should be addressed and that is the location of the mountain of God, known as both Horeb and Sinai. The traditional site, Jebel Musa, is on the southern end of the Sinai Peninsula and is where St. Catherine’s Monastery stands. When Helena, Emperor Constantine’s mother, toured the Holy Land in the 4th century A.D., she was given this spot as the likely location of where Moses saw the burning bush.
Multiple other mountains in the Sinai Peninsula including Jebel Katarina and Ras Sharaf have been suggested as locations for Mount Sinai. In fact, by some counts more than two dozen mountains have been identified as Sinai. In light of the difficulty in nailing down the location, it is very likely that the maps we find in the back of a Bible might have the wrong location for the mountain where Moses met God.
Within the last thirty years, a case has been made that Mount Sinai might not have been within the Sinai Peninsula but in the Arabian Peninsula. Galatians 4:25 speaks of Sinai being in Arabia. Some have pointed to the mountain Jebel al Lawz in Arabia as a likely possibility for being Mount Sinai. Of course, there has been much pushback by those who advocate for a mountain within the Sinai Peninsula as being more likely. While this article is well too short to tackle all the complexities of this issue, be aware that when it comes to Sinai, we are not yet certain of its location.
For Further Reading
There are many fine commentaries/books on Exodus. Considering its importance within modern scholarship and the canonical criticism school of thought, Brevard Child’s 1974 commentary The Book of Exodus is worthy of note. I also have appreciated Duane Garrett’s A Commentary on Exodus in the Kregel Exegetical Library and Eugene Carpenter’s Exodus 1-18 in the Evangelical Exegetical Commentary. While not as popular as Genesis, Exodus remains a book that has gathered a lot of scholarly interest, and there are many additional resources besides the aforementioned that can help give you a good grasp on this important book. May God bless your study of His Word.
