In this summary of Isaiah, let’s start with the title. The title of the book of Isaiah is simply Isaiah, and as with most of the prophets it is the personal name of the primary human speaker in the book.
Author of Isaiah
Who is the author of this book? While “Isaiah, son of Amoz” would seem to be an obvious answer, the reality is that for more than two hundred years many scholars have assumed multiple authors for the book of Isaiah. Conservative scholarship still maintains the unity of the book, but most critical scholarship would suggest at least 3 Isaiahs.
In 1789, Johannes Doederlein “discovered” Deutero-Isaiah which begins at chapter 40, which actually is a point where the book shifts in tone and focus. This Deutero-Isaiah is said to date around 500 BC because of the mentioning by name of Cyrus the Great of Persia in chapters 44 and 45. Many who argue for a Deutero-Isaiah do so in part because they believe that this type of prophecy must be ex eventu, or “prophecy after the fact” in which an event that has already happened is portrayed as being the fulfillment of an earlier prophecy. So, basically the idea of predictive prophecy is denied by many who advocate for a multiple authorship of Isaiah.
However, it would soon be noted that there does seem to be another, though less obvious, shift in chapter 56, in which the audience no longer seems to be in exile. This led to the discovery of “Trito-Isaiah” by Bernard Duhm which constitutes chapters 56 to 66 of the book.
In more recent years, these hard lines separating Isaiah, Deutero-Isaiah, and Trito Isaiah have blurred with supposed sections of Deutero-Isaiah (like chapter 13) and Trito-Isaiah occurring within the Isaiah section. This has led to the theory of an Isaianic school of prophets which wrote in the same manner as their founder (i.e., Isaiah of Jerusalem).
“Conservative scholarship still maintains the unity of the book, but most critical scholarship would suggest at least 3 Isaiahs.”
While this theory of multiple authors does take note of distinct shifts within the book of Isaiah, there is no evidence from history of any knowledge of a multiple authorship of Isaiah. We have 2 almost-complete scrolls of Isaiah from Qumran. There is no division at 39 and 40, or 55 and 56. The Septuagint (LXX) version, which was known to divide long books into two (1 and 2 Kings, for example) does not divide the book. Josephus knows of no division, and neither does Ben Sirach (the writer of Ecclesiasticus) who discusses the canonical prophets. The New Testament will even quote from Isaiah 6 and Isaiah 53 in the span of a few verses and simply call it “Isaiah” (see John 12:38-40). It seems much of the issue comes down to the ability of a person to see into the future—which people who believe in a God that can reveal the future to humans find little issue with.
Date of Isaiah
Isaiah’s ministry is largely defined by the reigns of four kings of Judah: Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. However, Isaiah’s comments on some Egyptian Pharaohs (Hophra and Apries) suggests he lived on into the time of Manasseh, king of Judah. According to tradition (and perhaps alluded to in Hebrews 11), Manasseh had the aged prophet stuck in a log and sawed in half. In calendar terms, Isaiah had a ministry of approximately 60 years (likely making him a very young man when he started, as most prophets tended to be young), stretching from 740 BC to around 681 or so. If the theory of Deutero/Trito Isaiah is correct, then most of the material in chapters 1 through 39 date to the 8th/7th century, with Deutero being found in the 6th century.
Outline of Isaiah
Isaiah is relatively easy to outline. At least the first 39 chapters are, with 40 through 66 being more difficult to outline. Chapters 1 through 12 focus on the Immanuel child and is sometimes referred to as the “Book of Immanuel.” Chapters 12 through 23 are oracles against foreign nations, which is a common section found in many prophets. Chapters 24 through 27 comprise a section called the “little Apocalypse,” which bears characteristics similar to the apocalyptic genre (which would include books like Revelation). Chapters 28 and 29 focus on various warnings to Ephraim and Judah. Chapters 30 and 31 focus on not trusting in Egypt. Chapters 32 through 35 focus on Judah’s future and the destruction of the nations.
Chapters 36 through 39 are often known as the book of Hezekiah and serve as the bridge between the major sections of 1 through 35 and 40 through 66. Chapters 40 through 54 focus on the agents of deliverance, Cyrus and the Suffering Servant, and the downfall of Babylon. Chapters 55 through 59 spend some time discussing disobedience and the need for more obedience.
Chapters 60 through 66 close out the book with more eschatological language focusing on the blessings of the righteous and the punishment of the wicked.
“Isaiah is relatively easy to outline. At least the first 39 chapters are, with 40 through 66 being more difficult to outline.”
Place/Purpose of Isaiah in the Canon
In the English Classification system, Isaiah stands first among the Major Prophets. This might have been due to chronological concerns as Isaiah predates the rest of the Major Prophets. There are a few French and some Hebrew Bibles that place Jeremiah at the first of these prophets due to its larger size. In the Hebrew Classification system, Isaiah is listed first among the “latter prophets,” preceding Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve (the Minor Prophets).
As to its canonicity, Isaiah was never a book that any doubted. Isaiah serves at a very pivotal time in Israel’s history with the destruction of the northern kingdom of Israel happening in his day. In addition, he himself looks and prophesies of the day when Judah falls to Babylon. More than that, Isaiah also notes the coming restoration of Israel, and therefore it is with his book that a greater number of Messianic or Messianic age elements begin to make their appearance.
Overview of Isaiah
Chapters 1-12
Isaiah begins with an indictment on God’s people where heaven and earth (the witnesses of the covenant at Sinai) are called in. God notes the many crimes of the people and how they had refused discipline.
The opening chapters hint at the coming judgment but also speak of the “latter days” (see chapter 4) after Israel’s punishment when the Gentiles will start streaming to the LORD. This is the age of the Messiah, a theme which is central to the opening 12 chapters.
Isaiah’s call is in chapter 6 where he is commissioned to preach to a people who will not listen. A good example of this occurs in chapter 7 in which Aram and Israel have invaded Judah to force them into an anti-Assyria alliance. Isaiah is sent to King Ahaz with a message to trust the LORD and hold out, but Ahaz isn’t interested, as he has already planned to ask the king of Assyria for aid. Isaiah promises a sign, which Ahaz refuses, but the LORD would give a sign. This is the famous passage of Isaiah 7:14 describing that the virgin will be with child and bear a son to be called Immanuel.
More about this child is learned in chapter 9, where he is called Wonderful Counsellor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, and Prince of Peace. In addition, Isaiah 11 tells us that the Messiah is the sprout out of the stump of Jesse.
“Isaiah begins with an indictment on God’s people where heaven and earth (the witnesses of the covenant at Sinai) are called in.”
Chapters 13-39
Chapters 13-23 are oracles against foreign nations, a few of which, like Moab and Egypt, are said to have a remnant left to them. After the judgment on the nations, we have what is known as the “Little Apocalypse” of chapters 24 through 27 in which God delivers the city of the righteous from the city of man or wickedness.
Chapters 28 and 29 focus on warnings to the nation and include the famous “stone that the builders rejected” passage. Chapters 30 and 31 focus on Egypt and how it is undependable like a reed that will break and pierce your hand if you lean upon it. More judgment on the nation for trusting in Egypt is found in chapters 32 to 35.
Chapters 36 to 39 are transitional chapters as they change the focus from the issues of Isaiah’s day and the Assyrian threat to the future concern over Babylon. These chapters record the miraculous deliverance of Jerusalem from the Assyrian threat in the days of Hezekiah, king of Judah. While this deliverance gives a lot of hope for the people in the present, Isaiah warns Hezekiah that the nation’s treasures and sons will one day go to Babylon.
Chapters 40-66
The big shift in the book occurs beginning in chapter 40 where the audience seems to already be in exile and the Babylonians are the oppressors. Chapter 40 begins with God declaring comfort for his people. Imbedded in this chapter are the words that John the Baptist references concerning himself in Luke 3:3-6 as being the messenger who was to prepare the way of the LORD.
Most of chapters 40 through 55 (what has been called “Deutero-Isaiah”) focus on the deliverance of the exilic community from Babylonian oppression, but also from sin. Two “Messiahs” are pictured as being the liberators from these oppressions. First, the Persian Cyrus, who is mentioned by name in chapters 44 and 45 will free Israel from Babylon. Second, the Suffering Servant who becomes the focus of four key passages (42, 49, 50, 52/53) will care for the sins of the people.
There is another shift after 55 which seems to change the audience to those who have returned from exile for a while. Chapters 55 through 66 seem to focus more on the spiritual malaise of the returned exiles. Chapter 58 is a good illustration of this as, while the exiles would state that they were doing the “fasting,” there was no real response from God, since their fasting was done while they oppressed their workers.
Another famous passage occurs in chapter 61, which Jesus quotes and applies to Himself. This is the passage that begins with “The Spirit of the Sovereign LORD is on me, because the LORD has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor” (Isaiah 61:1a, NIV). The ending of Isaiah speaks in eschatological language of the judgment upon the rebellious, but of the ultimate salvation of those who seek refuge in Jerusalem.
“The ending of Isaiah speaks in eschatological language of the judgment upon the rebellious, but of the ultimate salvation of those who seek refuge in Jerusalem.”
Key Passages
Isaiah 6:10
With a book like Isaiah, this section on key passages could be exceedingly lengthy with the Messianic material alone. One of the more difficult passages comes from Isaiah 6:10 (NASB) which states, “Render the hearts of this people insensitive, their ears dull, and their eyes dim, otherwise they might see with their eyes and hear with their ears and understand with their hearts and return and be healed.” This passage seems to suggest that God did not want people to repent, which is a tough passage to grasp. However, Isaiah is supposed to preach God’s message to the people. Whenever God’s message is preached, it does something, either drawing people closer to God or hardening their hearts. Perhaps God wanted their hearts hardened so that the judgment on the nation which would eventually bring captivity and exile could be accomplished so that God could bring in the Messiah.
Isaiah 7:14
Another passage of note that carries with it some controversy is the virgin birth prophecy of Isaiah 7:14. In the context of the passage, Israel and Aram are invading Judah to force it into an anti-Assyrian alliance. The king of Judah, Ahaz, is told by Isaiah to trust in the LORD and even offers Ahaz a sign to help with his belief. Ahaz, in some false piety, refuses as he is going to trust in an Assyrian alliance to save him. However, God will give a sign, that a virgin will become pregnant, give birth, and by the time the child is old enough to choose good and refuse evil, the nations of Aram and Israel will be gone. Now Matthew 2 applies this passage to Jesus, but how would this be a sign to Ahaz? We read in Isaiah 8 that another child is born, Maher-shalal-hash-baz, and by the time he gets old enough to cry out “My Father, My Mother,” the nations of Aram and Israel will be gone. I believe that we have a fulfillment of Isaiah 7:14 in Ahaz’s day with Mather-shalal-hash-baz, where a woman who was a virgin gets married (likely to Isaiah) and then produces a child. Then we have a fulfillment of a child who in 9:6 will be called “Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace,” and that fulfillment is in Christ.
“Then we have a fulfillment of a child who in 9:6 will be called ‘Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace,’ and that fulfillment is in Christ.”
We would be remiss not to discuss the issue of “virgin” when it comes to the virgin birth. The Hebrew term ‘almah has been translated for some time in Hebrew lexicons as “young woman” of marrying age. However, when the Greeks translated the term here, they used parthenos, which is the typical Greek word for virgin. The term ‘almah is used only 7 times in Scripture, and several of the cases (e.g., describing a 6-year-old Miriam in Exodus 2) clearly refer to a virgin. While some of the cases are more of a debate (like the usage in Proverbs 30, “the way of a man with a ‘maiden’ [‘almah]), none of these uses demand a sexually experienced female, and many of the passages preclude it. Justin Martyr in his dialogue with the fictional Jew, Trypho, argued that the Jews changed the meaning of the word to argue against Christianity. While such a nefarious reason is impossible to prove, it may have come about that the term might have changed meaning over time. That is, while it might have meant strictly virginal in Isaiah’s day, the word may have come to have a broader definition later on. Hebrew does have another word for virgin (betulah) and so perhaps some differentiation was needed between the terms.
Suffering Servant Passages
Another key passage, or passages in this case are the famed Suffering Servant passages. Much like the virgin birth question, the controversy focuses on the different understandings that Jewish commentators have on these passages (Isaiah 42, 49, 50, 52/53) more than ones that Christian interpreters have. The question focuses on the identity of the Servant, which could likely vary from one passage to the next. In most cases, Jews assume the nation of Israel as the servant (or perhaps an individual like Cyrus, but most often the nation itself). Some passages, like Isaiah 41:8 which mentions “My servant,” is clearly a reference to the nation of Israel. However, some of the Suffering Servant passages don’t seem to fit the context of the nation of Israel. For example, Isaiah 49:5 seems to suggest an individual that will “redeem Jacob.” It seems unlikely that the nation can redeem itself, and so it seems best to understand this as the Messianic figure. In addition, a singular figure must be what is pictured in Isaiah 53:5, for the prophet notes this individual was crushed for “our iniquities,” which would include the nation of Israel’s sins.
Archaeological Insights
There are several archaeological artifacts of note that have a bearing on the book of Isaiah. The first of these is the Taylor Prism/Sennacherib Prism (though there are actually several Sennacherib prisms, the ISAC prism and the Jerusalem prism). The Taylor Prism was discovered at Nineveh by Colonel Robert Taylor in 1830 about a full decade before official excavations occurred at Nineveh. The Taylor Prism is Sennacherib’s account of the campaign into Judah in 701 BC. In it, Sennacherib claims to have taken 46 cities of Judah and over 200,000 captives. He even claims to have shut up Hezekiah “like a bird in a cage,” but he doesn’t claim to have taken Jerusalem. In Isaiah 36 and 37, we find one of the biblical accounts of Sennacherib’s invasion (2 Kings and 2 Chronicles also mention it), and it notes that while the Assyrian did take many cities (for example the Judean city of Lachish in which Sennacherib decorated his palace walls with a depiction of its fall), an angel from the LORD wipes out his army and the Assyrian fails to conquer Jerusalem.
“There are several archaeological artifacts of note that have a bearing on the book of Isaiah.”
Since Cyrus is mentioned by name in Isaiah 44 and 45, the Cyrus Cylinder is worth mentioning as an archaeological artifact of note. The Cyrus Cylinder is named after the first Persian Emperor, Cyrus, and was found in Babylon in 1879. It records the last days of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and its downfall at the hands of the Persians under Cyrus. It tells that basically the Babylonians looked to Cyrus almost as liberator from the often-absent Babylonian ruler Nabonidus. In addition, the Cylinder proclaims a restoration of cultic items and a return of captive people groups that had been taken captive during the Neo-Babylonian empire. While the Jews nor their temple are mentioned by the Cylinder, this policy of the Persians coincides well with the deliverance that Cyrus seems to have given the Jews that had been captive in Babylon.
For Further Reading
Isaiah’s importance is hard to overemphasize, and as such, plenty of commentaries on the book have been written. One of the classics that is relatively conservative and is still found in many bibliographies is Edward Young’s three-volume commentary set The Book of Isaiah. For highly detailed and scholarly work, I like J. Alec Motyer’s The Prophecy of Isaiah. For those who are most interested in the Suffering Servant passages, John Goldingay’s The Message of Isaiah 40-55 is another excellent source.
