With a survey of various contemporary end-times views now attempted, our focus shifts to an overview of the key introductory issues the book of Revelation presents. Those issues include author, genre or type of writing, date, location of origin and destination, intended audience, and purpose of writing.
Another topic at times neglected in studies of this book is the historical setting. What significant events had transpired that might have had an impact upon the message of the book? Which prominent figures would likely have played a part? If Revelation was penned near the end of the first century, as most interpreters believe, what notable individuals and events might have served as background imagery and/or key points of historical reference?
Among possible candidates we should mention: the birth, life, and death of Jesus, Jewish persecution of the early church, the reign and death of Nero, Rome’s resultant destructive civil war, the Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem at the hands of the Romans, the remarkable rise of the Flavian Dynasty (Vespasian, Titus, Domitian), and persecutions of Christians under Nero and Domitian. There was more, but this is a start. For some who are anticipating a future rise of the “beast,” or the eventual devastation of the “great harlot,” Babylon, perhaps a look back, not forward, might be instructive. More to come.
Authorship
The author of Revelation identifies himself as Christ’s servant “John” (Revelation 1:1, 9; 22:8) and early church tradition identifies him with John the Apostle, author of the Gospel of John and of the three Johannine Epistles. The book of Revelation itself does not make those connections, and it is not uncommon today for scholars to distinguish between John the Apostle (the Gospel of John), John the elder (1-3 John), and John the seer (Revelation). The linguistic arguments are complex and are complicated by the extensive use of the Greek Old Testament (Septuagint or “LXX”) in historical and theological allusions throughout the book.
The equation of John the seer with John the Apostle does suggest several interesting parallels (e.g., the two resurrections of John 5:24-29 and the two resurrections of Revelation 20:4-6), but arguments regarding the interpretation of Revelation based upon this identification of the author must remain tentative. What seems clear is that John the seer was a prophet well known to the seven churches of Asia to whom the book was written.
“Early church tradition identifies him with John the Apostle, author of the Gospel of John and of the three Johannine Epistles.”
Genre of the Book
Much has been produced in scholarly circles concerning the literary genre of “apocalyptic” writings to which the book of Revelation belongs along with earlier biblical texts such as Daniel and sections of Ezekiel, Zechariah, and Isaiah. As well we could note other Jewish writings contemporary with the book of Revelation such as 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, and others.
Apocalypticism is commonly characterized as being dualistic, climactic, and other-worldly in that two worlds, the physical and spiritual, are contrasted, while the only hope for the present age is the direct, supernatural intervention of God through which a new world order will arise.
Apocalyptic literature often contains revelations mediated by angels and is generally directed toward the end of the present age. Visions of heaven may be involved, and the prophet or seer may himself be transported to the heavenly realm in the process of receiving the divine revelation. The Greek word for John’s book is Apokalypsis, the “Revelation” or “Unveiling” (Revelation 1:1). Again, what sets Revelation apart is not that it is an apocalyptic work, but that it is an inspired apocalyptic work.
“Apocalyptic literature often contains revelations mediated by angels and is generally directed toward the end of the present age.”
Date
Two main approaches have surfaced regarding the date of the writing of Revelation. A common preterist view, both full and partial, places the writing of the book during the reign of Nero, most likely shortly before his death in A.D. 68. Most who hold this approach view the book of Revelation as focusing primarily on the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70.
The more popular approach among contemporary scholars is to date the book to the time of Domitian and thus circa A.D. 95. In this approach the coming wrath relates to the fate of the wicked at the second coming while the destruction of Babylon the Harlot may relate to ancient Rome or, in a common historicist approach, modern “Rome” as it relates to the Roman papacy. Some would identify Revelation’s “harlot” with modern liberal Christian adherents, while others envision a literal Babylon to be rebuilt in the Middle East and reenergized in the “anything-is-possible” future. (A later article will suggest a better option, controversial but sound.)
In his important work, The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting (1986), Colin J. Hemer focuses on the cultural and historical backgrounds of each of the seven churches of Asia to whom Revelation was addressed. The majority of scholars favor the Domitian view and Hemer’s careful study supports such a conclusion.
“The majority of scholars favor the Domitian view.”
I propose a view in which the Domitian date at the end of the first century A.D. is accepted along with an awareness that many aspects of the book have apocalyptic references to previous historical events (e.g., the A.D. 70 fall of Jerusalem) and are not all necessarily predictive, contrary to what many assume. Instead, the symbols and visions John experienced in some cases pointed to the eschatological consummation at Christ’s return, while at times others revealed the significance of past events, especially those events with continuing impact. The birth, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus are described through signs and symbols (e.g., Revelation 12) as is the rise of the beast from the sea and the ensuing persecution of the church (e.g., Revelation 13).
The seven heads described in Revelation 17 almost certainly represent Roman emperors of the first century (with Nero clearly as the fifth head). It can be debated whether the destruction of Babylon the Harlot at the hands of the beast (Revelation 17-18) refers to the harlot Rome or the harlot Jerusalem. If the latter, then another first-century historical event is being described in apocalyptic terms and given theological, perhaps apologetic, significance.
There may be value in pursuing an approach to the book in which all events outside of those surrounding the second coming have already been fulfilled. Such an approach would preserve the notion of “imminence” regarding Christ’s return—no future events need transpire before the second coming. All is ready. Regarding Revelation, then, a Domitian dating may not necessarily demand an exclusively futuristic approach to the book. (But what about the “man of lawlessness” in 2 Thessalonians 2? See Unraveling Revelation, Appendix A, “The Man of Lawlessness.”)
“A Domitian dating may not necessarily demand an exclusively futuristic approach to the book.”
The approach here should not be confused with the phenomenon often claimed in biblical scholarship and described in technical terms as vaticinium ex eventu (Latin, “prophecy out of the event” or “prediction after the fact”). Of course, such “prophecy” is not prophecy at all. Generally we find this phenomenon in ancient writings, sometimes apocalyptic, where a pseudonym is used by the author for literary effect or to achieve an elevated status or authority. In extra-biblical Jewish texts such as Enoch, 4 Ezra, or 2 Baruch, writers have assumed the names of esteemed ancients (e.g., Ezra the post-exilic priest, Baruch the scribe of Jeremiah) and have often described visions or prophecies of supposed future events, events that in reality lie in the past and thus are known facts, not divine predictions.
I do not believe that the OT book of Daniel falls into this category although many Bible scholars have maintained that it does and assign a date of circa 165 B.C. for a work that claims to be much earlier—from the time of the Babylonian and Persian empires (sixth century B.C.). A conservative biblical approach lands (a real) Daniel the prophet in the courts of Babylon and Medo-Persia uttering genuine prophecies of the future, some of which point to the coming of the Messiah and even to the later destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans: Daniel’s “fourth kingdom.” It is important to note that the author of Revelation identifies himself as “John” on the island of Patmos, a church leader with close ties to his initial audience, not as some earlier authority figure from the distant past.
“The author of Revelation identifies himself as ‘John’ on the island of Patmos, a church leader with close ties to his initial audience, not as some earlier authority figure from the distant past.”
A strong majority of scholars favor the late date for Revelation, and I concur that such an approach makes the most sense for the book’s contents. It fits best with the descriptions of some of the churches of Roman Asia addressed at the beginning, churches that had been around for a while, not newly founded, churches plagued by false teachers (“Balaam,” “Jezebel,” and the Nicolaitans), and condemned for apathy (“loss of their first love”—Ephesus; “lukewarmness”—Laodicea). It corresponds to the popular understanding that persecution was a growing threat for the Christians in Roman Asia in view of the increased vitality and spread of Rome’s imperial cult during Domitian’s reign and beyond. It fits the widespread chaos, uncertainty, and fear that characterized Domitian’s later years.
The most cited ancient source for the late date of Revelation is Irenaeus in his Against Heresies 5.30.3 (ca. A.D. 180). There, in connection with attempts by some to identify the Antichrist by name, Irenaeus argues that if John had thought it important to communicate that information he would have done so, and he notes that John’s apocalyptic vision (our Revelation) had been seen rather recently, toward the end of Domitian’s reign.
Much of later early church testimony depends upon Irenaeus here. Others holding to the Domitian date included Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, and Jerome.
“Others holding to the Domitian date included Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, and Jerome.”
One grammatical controversy involves Irenaeus’s expression “it was seen,” in that some have argued that this could be understood as “he (John) was seen” as recently as the time of Domitian. Theoretically, some early-date enthusiasts would contend, John could have been seen in Domitian’s time while his writing of Revelation could have been done earlier, in the days of Nero. Most scholars have concluded, however, that “it was seen” makes the best grammatical and contextual sense and that Irenaeus stands firm as an early external witness for the Domitian dating of Revelation (ca. AD 95).
Place of Origin and Destination
John’s claim that he received his revelation on the island of Patmos is questioned only by those who reject the full inspiration of Scripture. Although there is no conclusive evidence regarding the date, such an exile was more likely during the reign of Domitian than that of Nero. Persecution was more widespread in the later decades of the first century, although Nero’s earlier horrific treatment of some of the Christians in Rome is well documented. The isle of Patmos was in the Aegean Sea some seventy miles southwest of Ephesus.
Important regarding the date and destination of the book of Revelation is the previously-mentioned monograph by Colin J. Hemer, The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting (1986). Hemer’s research led him to the conclusion that Domitian’s reign was the best option for the dating of the book, not the earlier reign of Nero. 
One impression that clearly derives from Hemer’s book is the importance of the original audience for the message of Revelation. In my estimation, the dispensational approach that Revelation 6-18 describes a post-rapture generation and not the New Testament church is fully discredited by a reasonable survey of the initial messages to the individual churches and of the rich imagery found later in the book that parallels the promises given to all seven churches previously in Revelation 2-3 (Unraveling, 93-94). For example, regarding Pergamum we read of the sword from the Lord’s mouth (Revelation 2:16 and also Revelation 19:15, 21); and a new name no one knows (Revelation 2:17 along with Revelation 19:12-13, 16; 22:4). The other six cases are just as striking.
“Persecution was more widespread in the later decades of the first century.”
The seven cities of western Roman Asia were joined by a postal route enhancing communication between communities. Three of the cities—Smyrna, Pergamum, and Ephesus—hosted provincial temples dedicated to the imperial cult, distinctions that no doubt created additional pressures for the Christian communities in those places.
Purpose of the Book
The contents of Revelation reveal an uncompromising tone. Faced with seemingly overwhelming odds, small Christian communities are challenged to stand firm for the gospel and to portray a faithful witness to the world that Jesus Christ, Israel’s resurrected Messiah, was the hope of the world—not Rome’s emperor—and that “peace and security” (Latin pax et securitas) could be realized only through faith in Christ.
Other claims were illusory, including the so-called Pax Romana, “Roman Peace,” stemming from the time of Augustus. As opponents learned, Rome’s “peace” often came at a terrible price, a price they paid in military defeat. Christ’s peace was paid for through His own blood. God’s people are to be “overcomers,” not by weapons of war, but by the blood of the Lamb. They are portrayed as defeating the devil, the dragon of old, by their faithfulness. They have “conquered him by the blood of the lamb” in that “they loved not their lives even unto death” (Revelation 12:11, ESV).
Victory will come only through submission. Revelation depicts scenes of victorious saints in heaven worshiping at the throne as they await the consummation (Revelation 6:9-11; 7:9-17; 14:1-5; 15:2-4; 19:1-10). Meanwhile back on earth, the call for faithful resistance rings out: “If anyone is to be taken captive, to captivity he goes; if anyone is to be slain with the sword, with the sword must he be slain. Here is a call for the endurance and faith of the saints” (Revelation 13:10, ESV).
“Victory will come only through submission.”
A frequent debate among commentators is whether or not all of the dead in Christ mentioned in the book are martyrs. The evidence is mixed, but one can make a case that the martyrs mentioned represent a larger following whose deaths may have come by various means. What is clear in Revelation, however, is that there is no safe haven for those willing to take a bold stand for their faith. “Be faithful unto death, and I will give you the crown of life” (Revelation 2:10b, ESV).
As most would expect, the promise of Christ’s return is a key aspect of the contribution of the book of Revelation. This promise is featured at the beginning and end of the book and resurfaces in the letters to the churches and at the end of various cycles (the sixth seal, the seventh trumpet). As well, it appears in select visions (e.g., the harvest of the earth, the Rider on a white horse from heaven, the destruction of Gog and Magog).
The setting of the book (date, destination, audience, contemporary circumstances) and the purpose of the book are not always closely tied together in the numerous available Revelation studies and commentaries. This seems to me to constitute a flaw in many works.
Getting Ahead by Looking Back
My approach to the purpose of Revelation sets this present work apart from many. To be sure, the importance of the Old Testament background of the book is stressed here as in numerous treatments. Awareness of the nature of apocalyptic literature in assessing the focus and imagery of John’s writings is shown to be essential. As is commonly accepted, warnings to the ancient church are understood to have enduring relevance.
A key theme stressed in my Unraveling Revelation regarded the importance of prominent past events in the minds of the original recipients of the book. Who were these early Christians, what were they experiencing, and what concerns did they have regarding recent events and potential future developments? See especially my Chapter XII, “Behind the Scenes: The Background Story.” Commentators that focus primarily upon modern applications or upon futuristic end-times scenarios are likely missing the keys that may unlock the primary message of the book.
I am convinced that assigning the Domitian date (ca. A.D. 95) to the book of Revelation, the most popular approach taken and the one adopted here, is more important than most students of the book realize. The experiences and recollections of the Christians at the end of the first century likely played a major role in their grasping prominent imagery in the book.
“The experiences and recollections of the Christians at the end of the first century likely played a major role in their grasping prominent imagery in the book.”
Viewing the Big Picture
Revelation itself highlights several key issues in bold relief. Addressing these keys is essential for the book to make sense. Among the many images and numerical expressions found throughout, certain ones demand careful attention. The calls for “wisdom” in connection with the beast with the mortal wound that amazingly heals (Revelation 13:3, 12, 14), and with his/its number “666” (Revelation 13:18), and its “seven mountains” that also represent “seven kings” (Revelation 17:9-10) invite explanation. So does the label “mystery” surrounding this remarkable beast who “was and is not and…” (Revelation 17:8), as well as the label “Babylon the great,” emblazoned upon the forehead of “the great prostitute” (Revelation 17:1) and referred to as a “name of mystery” (Revelation 17:5). These are key components of John’s message that frequently get short shrift from commentators. Why?
Many wish not to get “bogged down” with needless speculation or pursue “divisive topics” that have puzzled students of Scripture for centuries. Why bother and so miss the main point? And yet the proper identification of John’s “ mystery” and the correct understanding of Revelation’s “wisdom” in key texts may work wonders for arriving at a satisfactory, meaningful approach to the message of the book as a whole. We may be surprised by the results. They may even help lead us to the main point!
Some current “big-picture” interpretations of Revelation offer numerous, broad-based contemporary applications, complete with targeted denunciations and warnings (e.g., materialism, religious liberalism, American colonialism, etc.) Lots to choose from. Greater attention to the original setting of the book may take us in different directions, however.
“Revelation itself highlights several key issues in bold relief.”
I have become convinced that the nexus of three critical developments in the last half of the first century provides much of the rationale for the book. These three phenomena created consternation for the early church and demanded explanation and reassurance for faithful Christ followers. The emphasis in Revelation on addressing these paramount issues should become obvious.
(1) The persecution of Christians at the hands of both Jewish and Roman authorities—initial manifestations of the promised “tribulation” for followers of Christ noted throughout the New Testament—created a crisis of faith for many. Revelation’s exhortations to be faithful unto death were accompanied by comforting scenes of heavenly rewards for those who “conquered” by their faith.
(2) The remarkable recovery of Rome from its deadly civil war (A.D. 68-69) following the death of Nero (A.D. 68) caused the world to “marvel.” Its “mortal wound” was healed (Revelation 13:3-4, 12-14) and the power of the empire grew even stronger under the Flavian Dynasty, A.D. 69-96 (Vespasian, Titus, Domitian). Although some of the atrocities previously committed by Nero against Christians were not repeated in Rome, there is evidence that the decades spanning the end of the first century and the beginning of the second were fraught with uncertainty and danger for Christians whose practices were brought to the attention of wary Roman authorities.
“Revelation’s exhortations to be faithful unto death were accompanied by comforting scenes of heavenly rewards for those who ‘conquered’ by their faith.”
In its message that exalted Jesus, not Caesar, as Lord, Revelation countered the beliefs of the pagan masses. Rome was not the “eternal city” and its seemingly unchallenged power would crumble ultimately as the Lamb and His followers would defeat the beast and his cohorts. Along the way God would (did) even use this pagan empire to punish adulterous Jerusalem for its rejection of its Messiah.
(3) The destruction of Jerusalem and its temple were indications of God’s purposes and will, not of Rome’s ultimate power and dominion, in spite of the intense propaganda set forth by Vespasian and his heirs to validate the new Flavian Dynasty, a power shift in Rome forged in part with the flames of Jerusalem’s demise.
What Jesus had prophesied in the Gospels, especially in His Olivet Discourse (Matthew 24; Mark 13; Luke 21), came to fruition at the hands of God’s chosen instrument of punishment, Rome, much as Israel’s and Judah’s previous disobedience had brought God’s wrath at the hands of the Assyrians and Babylonians.
Many commentators on Revelation apparently do not see a vital connection between the above noted developments in the early years of the church and the content of John’s book. I disagree. Although Christ’s second coming is certainly emphasized in Revelation as the main event in God’s future for His chosen, the fall of Jerusalem is also on display as a past indicator of His holiness and demands for covenant faithfulness from His people.
“What Jesus had prophesied in the Gospels, especially in His Olivet Discourse, came to fruition at the hands of God’s chosen instrument of punishment, Rome.”
It is my conviction that within the message of Revelation we find references to the tribulations faced by the early church and the resultant messages of comfort and exhortation throughout, along with insights for navigating the challenging terrains of theodicy (the study of God’s justness) as they relate to the triumphant survival of the Roman Empire from its near demise, and to the horrific destruction of Jerusalem and the Jewish nation at the hands of that very empire. And through it all, Christ’s church is challenged to persevere as it proclaims Jesus as Lord. A lot for one book! But what a book!
Resources for Revelation
Among the many works on Revelation, I have found the following particularly useful.
Standard Commentaries
Beale, G.K. The Book of Revelation (1999)
Caird, G.B. A Commentary on the Revelation of St. John the Divine (1966)
Hendriksen, William. More Than Conquerors: An Interpretation of the Book of Revelation (1967 [1939])
Ladd, George Eldon. A Commentary on the Revelation of John (1972)
Osborne, Grant R. Revelation (2002)
Smalley, Stephen S. The Revelation to John: A Commentary on the Greek Text of the Apocalypse (2005)
Witherington, Ben III. Revelation (2003).
Specialized Revelation Studies
Barr, David L. Tales of the End: A Narrative Commentary on the Book of Revelation (1998)
Bauckham, Richard. The Climax of Prophecy: Studies on the Book of Revelation (1993); The Theology of the Book of Revelation (1993)
Blackwell, Ben C., John K. Goodrich and Jason Maston, eds. Reading Revelation in Context: John’s Apocalypse and Second Temple Judaism (2019)
Friesen, Steven J. Imperial Cults and the Apocalypse of John: Reading Revelation in the Ruins (2001)
Heiser, Michael S. The Old Testament in Revelation (2021)
Hemer, Colin J. The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting (2001 [1986])
Hill, Charles E. Regnum Caelorum: Patterns of Millennial Thought in Early Christianity, 2nd ed. (2001)
Lewis, Arthur H. The Dark Side of the Millennium: The Problem of Evil in Rev. 20:1-10 (1980)
Longman, Tremper III. Revelation Through Old Testament Eyes (2022)
Thompson, Leonard L. The Book of Revelation: Apocalypse and Empire (1990)
Wood, Shane J. The Alter-Imperial Paradigm: Empire Studies and the Book of Revelation (2016)
Comparative Views; Millennial Views
Bock, Darrell L. ed. Three Views on the Millennium and Beyond (1999)
Clouse, Robert G. (ed.). The Meaning of the Millennium: Four Views (1979)
Gregg, Steve. ed. Revelation, Four Views: A Parallel Commentary (1997)
Grenz, Stanley J. The Millennial Maze: Sorting Out Evangelical Options (1992)
Preterist Works
Chilton, David. The Days of Vengeance: An Exposition of the Book of Revelation (1987)
Gentry, Kenneth L., Jr. Before Jerusalem Fell: Dating the Book of Revelation (1998)
Practical, Devotional Works
Lowery, Robert A. Revelation’s Rhapsody: Listening to the Lyrics of the Lamb: How to Read the Book of Revelation (2000)
McKnight, Scot with Cody Matchett. Revelation for the Rest of Us (2023)
Moore, Mark E. How to Dodge a Dragon (1998)
Wood, Shane J. Thinning the Veil: Encountering Jesus Christ in the Book of Revelation (2025)
Wood, Shane J. ed. Dragons, John, and Every Grain of Sand: Essays on the Book of Revelation in Honor of Dr. Robert Lowery (2011)
To check out Dr. Larry Pechawer’s book Unraveling Revelation: Hope, Wisdom, and Mystery in John’s Apocalypse, click here.
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Keys to Unraveling Revelation: Author, Genre, Date, and Purpose
By Larry Pechawer | Bio
Larry Pechawer served as a professor of Bible and Biblical Languages for nearly forty years combined at Cincinnati Bible College and Seminary, Central Christian College of the Bible (now Central Bible University), and Ozark Christian College. While at Central he also served as Academic Dean. In addition to preaching ministries in Kentucky and Missouri, Dr. Pechawer made eighteen overseas teaching trips on behalf of Seminary of the Nations.
Larry attended The Ohio State University and graduated from Cincinnati Bible College and Seminary (BA, MA) and Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion (PhD). His doctoral emphasis was on ancient Semitic languages, especially Hebrew and Aramaic. He has authored several books including Unraveling Revelation: Hope, Wisdom, and Mystery in John’s Apocalypse. He and his wife Julie, a retired elementary school teacher, live in Joplin, Missouri.
With a survey of various contemporary end-times views now attempted, our focus shifts to an overview of the key introductory issues the book of Revelation presents. Those issues include author, genre or type of writing, date, location of origin and destination, intended audience, and purpose of writing.
Another topic at times neglected in studies of this book is the historical setting. What significant events had transpired that might have had an impact upon the message of the book? Which prominent figures would likely have played a part? If Revelation was penned near the end of the first century, as most interpreters believe, what notable individuals and events might have served as background imagery and/or key points of historical reference?
Among possible candidates we should mention: the birth, life, and death of Jesus, Jewish persecution of the early church, the reign and death of Nero, Rome’s resultant destructive civil war, the Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem at the hands of the Romans, the remarkable rise of the Flavian Dynasty (Vespasian, Titus, Domitian), and persecutions of Christians under Nero and Domitian. There was more, but this is a start. For some who are anticipating a future rise of the “beast,” or the eventual devastation of the “great harlot,” Babylon, perhaps a look back, not forward, might be instructive. More to come.
Authorship
The author of Revelation identifies himself as Christ’s servant “John” (Revelation 1:1, 9; 22:8) and early church tradition identifies him with John the Apostle, author of the Gospel of John and of the three Johannine Epistles. The book of Revelation itself does not make those connections, and it is not uncommon today for scholars to distinguish between John the Apostle (the Gospel of John), John the elder (1-3 John), and John the seer (Revelation). The linguistic arguments are complex and are complicated by the extensive use of the Greek Old Testament (Septuagint or “LXX”) in historical and theological allusions throughout the book.
The equation of John the seer with John the Apostle does suggest several interesting parallels (e.g., the two resurrections of John 5:24-29 and the two resurrections of Revelation 20:4-6), but arguments regarding the interpretation of Revelation based upon this identification of the author must remain tentative. What seems clear is that John the seer was a prophet well known to the seven churches of Asia to whom the book was written.
“Early church tradition identifies him with John the Apostle, author of the Gospel of John and of the three Johannine Epistles.”
Genre of the Book
Much has been produced in scholarly circles concerning the literary genre of “apocalyptic” writings to which the book of Revelation belongs along with earlier biblical texts such as Daniel and sections of Ezekiel, Zechariah, and Isaiah. As well we could note other Jewish writings contemporary with the book of Revelation such as 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, and others.
Apocalypticism is commonly characterized as being dualistic, climactic, and other-worldly in that two worlds, the physical and spiritual, are contrasted, while the only hope for the present age is the direct, supernatural intervention of God through which a new world order will arise.
Apocalyptic literature often contains revelations mediated by angels and is generally directed toward the end of the present age. Visions of heaven may be involved, and the prophet or seer may himself be transported to the heavenly realm in the process of receiving the divine revelation. The Greek word for John’s book is Apokalypsis, the “Revelation” or “Unveiling” (Revelation 1:1). Again, what sets Revelation apart is not that it is an apocalyptic work, but that it is an inspired apocalyptic work.
“Apocalyptic literature often contains revelations mediated by angels and is generally directed toward the end of the present age.”
Date
Two main approaches have surfaced regarding the date of the writing of Revelation. A common preterist view, both full and partial, places the writing of the book during the reign of Nero, most likely shortly before his death in A.D. 68. Most who hold this approach view the book of Revelation as focusing primarily on the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70.
The more popular approach among contemporary scholars is to date the book to the time of Domitian and thus circa A.D. 95. In this approach the coming wrath relates to the fate of the wicked at the second coming while the destruction of Babylon the Harlot may relate to ancient Rome or, in a common historicist approach, modern “Rome” as it relates to the Roman papacy. Some would identify Revelation’s “harlot” with modern liberal Christian adherents, while others envision a literal Babylon to be rebuilt in the Middle East and reenergized in the “anything-is-possible” future. (A later article will suggest a better option, controversial but sound.)
In his important work, The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting (1986), Colin J. Hemer focuses on the cultural and historical backgrounds of each of the seven churches of Asia to whom Revelation was addressed. The majority of scholars favor the Domitian view and Hemer’s careful study supports such a conclusion.
“The majority of scholars favor the Domitian view.”
I propose a view in which the Domitian date at the end of the first century A.D. is accepted along with an awareness that many aspects of the book have apocalyptic references to previous historical events (e.g., the A.D. 70 fall of Jerusalem) and are not all necessarily predictive, contrary to what many assume. Instead, the symbols and visions John experienced in some cases pointed to the eschatological consummation at Christ’s return, while at times others revealed the significance of past events, especially those events with continuing impact. The birth, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus are described through signs and symbols (e.g., Revelation 12) as is the rise of the beast from the sea and the ensuing persecution of the church (e.g., Revelation 13).
The seven heads described in Revelation 17 almost certainly represent Roman emperors of the first century (with Nero clearly as the fifth head). It can be debated whether the destruction of Babylon the Harlot at the hands of the beast (Revelation 17-18) refers to the harlot Rome or the harlot Jerusalem. If the latter, then another first-century historical event is being described in apocalyptic terms and given theological, perhaps apologetic, significance.
There may be value in pursuing an approach to the book in which all events outside of those surrounding the second coming have already been fulfilled. Such an approach would preserve the notion of “imminence” regarding Christ’s return—no future events need transpire before the second coming. All is ready. Regarding Revelation, then, a Domitian dating may not necessarily demand an exclusively futuristic approach to the book. (But what about the “man of lawlessness” in 2 Thessalonians 2? See Unraveling Revelation, Appendix A, “The Man of Lawlessness.”)
“A Domitian dating may not necessarily demand an exclusively futuristic approach to the book.”
The approach here should not be confused with the phenomenon often claimed in biblical scholarship and described in technical terms as vaticinium ex eventu (Latin, “prophecy out of the event” or “prediction after the fact”). Of course, such “prophecy” is not prophecy at all. Generally we find this phenomenon in ancient writings, sometimes apocalyptic, where a pseudonym is used by the author for literary effect or to achieve an elevated status or authority. In extra-biblical Jewish texts such as Enoch, 4 Ezra, or 2 Baruch, writers have assumed the names of esteemed ancients (e.g., Ezra the post-exilic priest, Baruch the scribe of Jeremiah) and have often described visions or prophecies of supposed future events, events that in reality lie in the past and thus are known facts, not divine predictions.
I do not believe that the OT book of Daniel falls into this category although many Bible scholars have maintained that it does and assign a date of circa 165 B.C. for a work that claims to be much earlier—from the time of the Babylonian and Persian empires (sixth century B.C.). A conservative biblical approach lands (a real) Daniel the prophet in the courts of Babylon and Medo-Persia uttering genuine prophecies of the future, some of which point to the coming of the Messiah and even to the later destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans: Daniel’s “fourth kingdom.” It is important to note that the author of Revelation identifies himself as “John” on the island of Patmos, a church leader with close ties to his initial audience, not as some earlier authority figure from the distant past.
“The author of Revelation identifies himself as ‘John’ on the island of Patmos, a church leader with close ties to his initial audience, not as some earlier authority figure from the distant past.”
A strong majority of scholars favor the late date for Revelation, and I concur that such an approach makes the most sense for the book’s contents. It fits best with the descriptions of some of the churches of Roman Asia addressed at the beginning, churches that had been around for a while, not newly founded, churches plagued by false teachers (“Balaam,” “Jezebel,” and the Nicolaitans), and condemned for apathy (“loss of their first love”—Ephesus; “lukewarmness”—Laodicea). It corresponds to the popular understanding that persecution was a growing threat for the Christians in Roman Asia in view of the increased vitality and spread of Rome’s imperial cult during Domitian’s reign and beyond. It fits the widespread chaos, uncertainty, and fear that characterized Domitian’s later years.
The most cited ancient source for the late date of Revelation is Irenaeus in his Against Heresies 5.30.3 (ca. A.D. 180). There, in connection with attempts by some to identify the Antichrist by name, Irenaeus argues that if John had thought it important to communicate that information he would have done so, and he notes that John’s apocalyptic vision (our Revelation) had been seen rather recently, toward the end of Domitian’s reign.
Much of later early church testimony depends upon Irenaeus here. Others holding to the Domitian date included Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, and Jerome.
“Others holding to the Domitian date included Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, and Jerome.”
One grammatical controversy involves Irenaeus’s expression “it was seen,” in that some have argued that this could be understood as “he (John) was seen” as recently as the time of Domitian. Theoretically, some early-date enthusiasts would contend, John could have been seen in Domitian’s time while his writing of Revelation could have been done earlier, in the days of Nero. Most scholars have concluded, however, that “it was seen” makes the best grammatical and contextual sense and that Irenaeus stands firm as an early external witness for the Domitian dating of Revelation (ca. AD 95).
Place of Origin and Destination
John’s claim that he received his revelation on the island of Patmos is questioned only by those who reject the full inspiration of Scripture. Although there is no conclusive evidence regarding the date, such an exile was more likely during the reign of Domitian than that of Nero. Persecution was more widespread in the later decades of the first century, although Nero’s earlier horrific treatment of some of the Christians in Rome is well documented. The isle of Patmos was in the Aegean Sea some seventy miles southwest of Ephesus.
Important regarding the date and destination of the book of Revelation is the previously-mentioned monograph by Colin J. Hemer, The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting (1986). Hemer’s research led him to the conclusion that Domitian’s reign was the best option for the dating of the book, not the earlier reign of Nero.Â
One impression that clearly derives from Hemer’s book is the importance of the original audience for the message of Revelation. In my estimation, the dispensational approach that Revelation 6-18 describes a post-rapture generation and not the New Testament church is fully discredited by a reasonable survey of the initial messages to the individual churches and of the rich imagery found later in the book that parallels the promises given to all seven churches previously in Revelation 2-3 (Unraveling, 93-94). For example, regarding Pergamum we read of the sword from the Lord’s mouth (Revelation 2:16 and also Revelation 19:15, 21); and a new name no one knows (Revelation 2:17 along with Revelation 19:12-13, 16; 22:4). The other six cases are just as striking.
“Persecution was more widespread in the later decades of the first century.”
The seven cities of western Roman Asia were joined by a postal route enhancing communication between communities. Three of the cities—Smyrna, Pergamum, and Ephesus—hosted provincial temples dedicated to the imperial cult, distinctions that no doubt created additional pressures for the Christian communities in those places.
Purpose of the Book
The contents of Revelation reveal an uncompromising tone. Faced with seemingly overwhelming odds, small Christian communities are challenged to stand firm for the gospel and to portray a faithful witness to the world that Jesus Christ, Israel’s resurrected Messiah, was the hope of the world—not Rome’s emperor—and that “peace and security” (Latin pax et securitas) could be realized only through faith in Christ.
Other claims were illusory, including the so-called Pax Romana, “Roman Peace,” stemming from the time of Augustus. As opponents learned, Rome’s “peace” often came at a terrible price, a price they paid in military defeat. Christ’s peace was paid for through His own blood. God’s people are to be “overcomers,” not by weapons of war, but by the blood of the Lamb. They are portrayed as defeating the devil, the dragon of old, by their faithfulness. They have “conquered him by the blood of the lamb” in that “they loved not their lives even unto death” (Revelation 12:11, ESV).
Victory will come only through submission. Revelation depicts scenes of victorious saints in heaven worshiping at the throne as they await the consummation (Revelation 6:9-11; 7:9-17; 14:1-5; 15:2-4; 19:1-10). Meanwhile back on earth, the call for faithful resistance rings out: “If anyone is to be taken captive, to captivity he goes; if anyone is to be slain with the sword, with the sword must he be slain. Here is a call for the endurance and faith of the saints” (Revelation 13:10, ESV).
“Victory will come only through submission.”
A frequent debate among commentators is whether or not all of the dead in Christ mentioned in the book are martyrs. The evidence is mixed, but one can make a case that the martyrs mentioned represent a larger following whose deaths may have come by various means. What is clear in Revelation, however, is that there is no safe haven for those willing to take a bold stand for their faith. “Be faithful unto death, and I will give you the crown of life” (Revelation 2:10b, ESV).
As most would expect, the promise of Christ’s return is a key aspect of the contribution of the book of Revelation. This promise is featured at the beginning and end of the book and resurfaces in the letters to the churches and at the end of various cycles (the sixth seal, the seventh trumpet). As well, it appears in select visions (e.g., the harvest of the earth, the Rider on a white horse from heaven, the destruction of Gog and Magog).
The setting of the book (date, destination, audience, contemporary circumstances) and the purpose of the book are not always closely tied together in the numerous available Revelation studies and commentaries. This seems to me to constitute a flaw in many works.
Getting Ahead by Looking Back
My approach to the purpose of Revelation sets this present work apart from many. To be sure, the importance of the Old Testament background of the book is stressed here as in numerous treatments. Awareness of the nature of apocalyptic literature in assessing the focus and imagery of John’s writings is shown to be essential. As is commonly accepted, warnings to the ancient church are understood to have enduring relevance.
A key theme stressed in my Unraveling Revelation regarded the importance of prominent past events in the minds of the original recipients of the book. Who were these early Christians, what were they experiencing, and what concerns did they have regarding recent events and potential future developments? See especially my Chapter XII, “Behind the Scenes: The Background Story.” Commentators that focus primarily upon modern applications or upon futuristic end-times scenarios are likely missing the keys that may unlock the primary message of the book.
I am convinced that assigning the Domitian date (ca. A.D. 95) to the book of Revelation, the most popular approach taken and the one adopted here, is more important than most students of the book realize. The experiences and recollections of the Christians at the end of the first century likely played a major role in their grasping prominent imagery in the book.
“The experiences and recollections of the Christians at the end of the first century likely played a major role in their grasping prominent imagery in the book.”
Viewing the Big Picture
Revelation itself highlights several key issues in bold relief. Addressing these keys is essential for the book to make sense. Among the many images and numerical expressions found throughout, certain ones demand careful attention. The calls for “wisdom” in connection with the beast with the mortal wound that amazingly heals (Revelation 13:3, 12, 14), and with his/its number “666” (Revelation 13:18), and its “seven mountains” that also represent “seven kings” (Revelation 17:9-10) invite explanation. So does the label “mystery” surrounding this remarkable beast who “was and is not and…” (Revelation 17:8), as well as the label “Babylon the great,” emblazoned upon the forehead of “the great prostitute” (Revelation 17:1) and referred to as a “name of mystery” (Revelation 17:5). These are key components of John’s message that frequently get short shrift from commentators. Why?
Many wish not to get “bogged down” with needless speculation or pursue “divisive topics” that have puzzled students of Scripture for centuries. Why bother and so miss the main point? And yet the proper identification of John’s “ mystery” and the correct understanding of Revelation’s “wisdom” in key texts may work wonders for arriving at a satisfactory, meaningful approach to the message of the book as a whole. We may be surprised by the results. They may even help lead us to the main point!
Some current “big-picture” interpretations of Revelation offer numerous, broad-based contemporary applications, complete with targeted denunciations and warnings (e.g., materialism, religious liberalism, American colonialism, etc.) Lots to choose from. Greater attention to the original setting of the book may take us in different directions, however.
“Revelation itself highlights several key issues in bold relief.”
I have become convinced that the nexus of three critical developments in the last half of the first century provides much of the rationale for the book. These three phenomena created consternation for the early church and demanded explanation and reassurance for faithful Christ followers. The emphasis in Revelation on addressing these paramount issues should become obvious.
(1) The persecution of Christians at the hands of both Jewish and Roman authorities—initial manifestations of the promised “tribulation” for followers of Christ noted throughout the New Testament—created a crisis of faith for many. Revelation’s exhortations to be faithful unto death were accompanied by comforting scenes of heavenly rewards for those who “conquered” by their faith.
(2) The remarkable recovery of Rome from its deadly civil war (A.D. 68-69) following the death of Nero (A.D. 68) caused the world to “marvel.” Its “mortal wound” was healed (Revelation 13:3-4, 12-14) and the power of the empire grew even stronger under the Flavian Dynasty, A.D. 69-96 (Vespasian, Titus, Domitian). Although some of the atrocities previously committed by Nero against Christians were not repeated in Rome, there is evidence that the decades spanning the end of the first century and the beginning of the second were fraught with uncertainty and danger for Christians whose practices were brought to the attention of wary Roman authorities.
“Revelation’s exhortations to be faithful unto death were accompanied by comforting scenes of heavenly rewards for those who ‘conquered’ by their faith.”
In its message that exalted Jesus, not Caesar, as Lord, Revelation countered the beliefs of the pagan masses. Rome was not the “eternal city” and its seemingly unchallenged power would crumble ultimately as the Lamb and His followers would defeat the beast and his cohorts. Along the way God would (did) even use this pagan empire to punish adulterous Jerusalem for its rejection of its Messiah.
(3) The destruction of Jerusalem and its temple were indications of God’s purposes and will, not of Rome’s ultimate power and dominion, in spite of the intense propaganda set forth by Vespasian and his heirs to validate the new Flavian Dynasty, a power shift in Rome forged in part with the flames of Jerusalem’s demise.
What Jesus had prophesied in the Gospels, especially in His Olivet Discourse (Matthew 24; Mark 13; Luke 21), came to fruition at the hands of God’s chosen instrument of punishment, Rome, much as Israel’s and Judah’s previous disobedience had brought God’s wrath at the hands of the Assyrians and Babylonians.
Many commentators on Revelation apparently do not see a vital connection between the above noted developments in the early years of the church and the content of John’s book. I disagree. Although Christ’s second coming is certainly emphasized in Revelation as the main event in God’s future for His chosen, the fall of Jerusalem is also on display as a past indicator of His holiness and demands for covenant faithfulness from His people.
“What Jesus had prophesied in the Gospels, especially in His Olivet Discourse, came to fruition at the hands of God’s chosen instrument of punishment, Rome.”
It is my conviction that within the message of Revelation we find references to the tribulations faced by the early church and the resultant messages of comfort and exhortation throughout, along with insights for navigating the challenging terrains of theodicy (the study of God’s justness) as they relate to the triumphant survival of the Roman Empire from its near demise, and to the horrific destruction of Jerusalem and the Jewish nation at the hands of that very empire. And through it all, Christ’s church is challenged to persevere as it proclaims Jesus as Lord. A lot for one book! But what a book!
Resources for Revelation
Among the many works on Revelation, I have found the following particularly useful.
Standard Commentaries
Beale, G.K. The Book of Revelation (1999)
Caird, G.B. A Commentary on the Revelation of St. John the Divine (1966)
Hendriksen, William. More Than Conquerors: An Interpretation of the Book of Revelation (1967 [1939])
Ladd, George Eldon. A Commentary on the Revelation of John (1972)
Osborne, Grant R. Revelation (2002)
Smalley, Stephen S. The Revelation to John: A Commentary on the Greek Text of the Apocalypse (2005)
Witherington, Ben III. Revelation (2003).
Specialized Revelation Studies
Barr, David L. Tales of the End: A Narrative Commentary on the Book of Revelation (1998)
Bauckham, Richard. The Climax of Prophecy: Studies on the Book of Revelation (1993); The Theology of the Book of Revelation (1993)
Blackwell, Ben C., John K. Goodrich and Jason Maston, eds. Reading Revelation in Context: John’s Apocalypse and Second Temple Judaism (2019)
Friesen, Steven J. Imperial Cults and the Apocalypse of John: Reading Revelation in the Ruins (2001)
Heiser, Michael S. The Old Testament in Revelation (2021)
Hemer, Colin J. The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting (2001 [1986])
Hill, Charles E. Regnum Caelorum: Patterns of Millennial Thought in Early Christianity, 2nd ed. (2001)
Lewis, Arthur H. The Dark Side of the Millennium: The Problem of Evil in Rev. 20:1-10 (1980)
Longman, Tremper III. Revelation Through Old Testament Eyes (2022)
Thompson, Leonard L. The Book of Revelation: Apocalypse and Empire (1990)
Wood, Shane J. The Alter-Imperial Paradigm: Empire Studies and the Book of Revelation (2016)
Comparative Views; Millennial Views
Bock, Darrell L. ed. Three Views on the Millennium and Beyond (1999)
Clouse, Robert G. (ed.). The Meaning of the Millennium: Four Views (1979)
Gregg, Steve. ed. Revelation, Four Views: A Parallel Commentary (1997)
Grenz, Stanley J. The Millennial Maze: Sorting Out Evangelical Options (1992)
Preterist Works
Chilton, David. The Days of Vengeance: An Exposition of the Book of Revelation (1987)
Gentry, Kenneth L., Jr. Before Jerusalem Fell: Dating the Book of Revelation (1998)
Practical, Devotional Works
Lowery, Robert A. Revelation’s Rhapsody: Listening to the Lyrics of the Lamb: How to Read the Book of Revelation (2000)
McKnight, Scot with Cody Matchett. Revelation for the Rest of Us (2023)
Moore, Mark E. How to Dodge a Dragon (1998)
Wood, Shane J. Thinning the Veil: Encountering Jesus Christ in the Book of Revelation (2025)
Wood, Shane J. ed. Dragons, John, and Every Grain of Sand: Essays on the Book of Revelation in Honor of Dr. Robert Lowery (2011)
To check out Dr. Larry Pechawer’s book Unraveling Revelation: Hope, Wisdom, and Mystery in John’s Apocalypse, click here.
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